Vivek Kaushik

Year(s)	Event	Key Figures / Dynasties	Significance
1648	Peace of Westphalia	Habsburg Austria, Bourbon France, Swedish Vasa, Dutch House of Orange	Ended Thirty Years’ War; recognized Dutch & Swiss independence; marked shift toward state sovereignty over religious unity.
1654	Cromwell becomes Lord Protector	English Commonwealth	England temporarily a republic; challenge to monarchical order in Europe.
1660	Restoration of Stuart monarchy	Charles II (House of Stuart)	Return of monarchy after Puritan rule; demonstrated resilience of hereditary monarchy.
1661–1715	Reign of Louis XIV (“Sun King”)	House of Bourbon	Apex of absolutism; Versailles becomes symbol of royal power; frequent wars to expand France’s borders.
1667–1668	War of Devolution	Bourbon France vs. Habsburg Spain	First of Louis XIV’s wars; gained parts of Spanish Netherlands.
1672–1678	Franco-Dutch War	Bourbon France vs. Dutch House of Orange (William III)	Strengthened France’s borders but rallied European powers against Louis XIV.
1683	Battle of Vienna	Habsburg Austria, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth vs. Ottoman Empire	Turning point halting Ottoman expansion; marked Habsburg resurgence in Central Europe.
1688	Glorious Revolution	William III (House of Orange) & Mary II (Stuart)	Protestant constitutional monarchy established in England; limited royal power, strengthened Parliament.
1688–1697	Nine Years’ War	Bourbon France vs. Grand Alliance (Habsburg Austria, England, Dutch, Spain, etc.)	First major “balance of power” war; economic strain across Europe.
1701–1714	War of the Spanish Succession	Bourbon France & Spain vs. Grand Alliance	Prevented union of France and Spain; Bourbon Philip V kept Spanish throne but renounced claim to French crown; rise of Britain as major power.
1713	Treaty of Utrecht	Same powers	Redrew European map; Britain gained Gibraltar, Canada; Habsburgs gained Spanish Netherlands & Italian territories.
1714	Accession of House of Hanover in Britain	George I (Hanover)	Beginning of Hanoverian rule in Britain; personal union with Hanover until 1837.
1740–1748	War of the Austrian Succession	Habsburg Austria (Maria Theresa) vs. Prussia (Hohenzollern), Bourbon France, others	Tested Maria Theresa’s rule; rise of Prussia as a rival to Austria in German affairs.
1756–1763	Seven Years’ War	Britain (Hanover), Prussia vs. Bourbon France, Habsburg Austria, Russia	First truly global war; Britain gained vast colonial territories; Prussia cemented great power status.
1772	First Partition of Poland	Russia (Romanov), Prussia, Habsburg Austria	Beginning of Poland’s dismemberment; dynastic powers sacrificing a sovereign state for balance-of-power gains.
1775–1783	American War of Independence	Britain (Hanover) vs. American Colonies + Bourbon France, Spain, Dutch	Spread of Enlightenment ideals; Britain lost colonies; France’s support worsened its financial crisis.
1780–1790	Reforms of Joseph II	Habsburg Austria	Enlightened absolutism attempt; religious tolerance, abolition of serfdom; met resistance from nobility & Church.
1789	Outbreak of French Revolution	Bourbon France	Collapse of absolutism in France; start of revolutionary era that will dismantle much of Europe’s monarchical order.

Age of Absolutism & Enlightenment Wars (1648–1789)